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White Papers

Read what GE's experts have to say regarding key industry issues and recent innovations. Learn which solutions can help you solve your toughest application challenges.

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General Design/Safety/Arc Flash

	A Comparison of Aluminum vs. Copper as used in Electrical Equipment The intended purpose is to provide the user with the information necessary to make an informed decision on the selection of copper or aluminum conductors within electrical equipment.
	Application Considerations for Series Combination Overcurrent Protective Devices (OCPD) in New Installations Proper applications of series combinations of OCPD are critical to meet minimum reliability and safety considerations.
	Arc Flash and Low Voltage/ Over-Current Protective Devices (OCPDs) An overview of the importance of conducting Arc Flash studies and how to interpret the results. You'll also learn about the different types of over-current protective devices and their role in mitigating the Arc Flash Hazard or reducing the Hazard Risk Category (HRC).
	Design for SAFETY This is part 1 of an ongoing series intended to give tips and suggestions to the electrical design engineer to design electrical distribution systems with safety for the end user as the primary concern. The concern with the worker's safety continues to increase and there are numerous items which can be specified and designs which can be implemented which will increase a worker's safety.
	Design for SAFETY- Part 2 Part 2 is aimed toward electrical distribution systems, which utilize services with overcurrent devices rated greater than 1200A. To enhance a workers safety, the designer must consider devices that remove the technician from hazardous conditions.
	Power Distribution Systems for the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games This paper addresses some power distribution solutions for the Beijing 2008 Olympics Games.

Ground Fault Protection

Integrated Low Voltage Switchgear System - Entellisys

Metering

	Electronic Power Meters - Guide for their Selection and Specification Electronic power meters vary widely in features and this range of features determines the price level of the meter. The purpose of this article is to help the reader select the right meter from the vast number of choices for their customers, matching the function and need of the meter with the value to the customer.
	Insights into Starting-up Electronic Meters Use of electronic meters is widespread today for many good reasons, but few users realize these meters should undergo a startup process. Here are some insights from a field engineer's perspective as to what may be needed in order to have a successful installation.
	OPC the "Enabling" Software Today's demands on software interfacing capabilities far exceeds anything imagined when the market began supporting Windows' dynamic data exchange (DDE) programming interface for communication with devices. This paper will provide an insight into these developments and describe the new king on the block, OPC.
	Submetering - A Practical Approach More than ever, submetering is being applied in industrial as well as the traditional commercial and residential applications to encourage conservation and increase productivity. This article will describe what it is, why it's important and how to effectively apply it.
	Unlocking the Proprietary Mess Who would possibly invest in equipment that restricts all their future purchases to that same initial manufacturer? Well, it happens every day and it could easily happen to you. The ability for equipment to communicate is so prevalent today most specifiers feel confident in specking it. But how does it communicate and what will understand it? Unless you are aware of the pitfalls, you could tumble in. And if you already have, this article will help you dig out.

Power Monitoring and Control

Power Quality and Reliability

Protective Relaying

	CT Saturation in Industrial Applications - Analysis and Application Guidelines This exploratory analysis shows that severely saturated CTs only slightly reduce short circuit tripping capabilities of GE Multilin's relays. Given the typically applied settings, there is no danger of a failure to trip from intantenous overcurrent functions even in extreme cases of very high short-circuit currents and low-ratio CTs.
	Distribution System Feeder Overcurrent Protection The intent of this publication is to give a better understanding of distribution overcurrent protection problems and some of the methods being used to solve them.
	Generating Station Protection This guide is concerned primarily with short circuit protection and protection for abnormal operating conditions for generating stations.
	Inter and Intra Substation Communications: Requirements and Solutions This paper presents an outline of the communication requirements of the myriad of Intelligent Electrical Devices in existence in the substation today as well as the expectations of what second generation microprocessor based devices might be able to do.
	Protection of Synchronous Generators during Unbalanced System Conditions This paper reviews the unbalanced current capabilities of generators, the system unbalance conditions that produce negative sequence currents and discusses the protection of generators for these conditions.
	Shunt Capacitor Bank Fundamentals and Protection This paper reviews principles of shunt capacitor bank design for substation installation and basic protection techniques.
	Substation Transients and Solid State Control The general nature and origin of control circuit transients are now fairly well understood. Also much progress has been made in identifying the features of station layout and solid state equipment design to eliminate this problem.
	The Art and Science of Protective Relaying A textbook on protective relaying by C. Russell Mason.
	UCA 2.0: The GE Experience This paper details the hardware and software considerations, issues encountered, and benefits enjoyed by GE and others in implementing the substation profile of UCA in a digital device.
	Upgrading and Enhancing the Generator Protection System by Making Use of Digital Systems Considering a digital enhancement or upgrade offers the owner of installed generation equipment several unique advantages. These include more complete machine protection, diagnostics capabilities for greater productivity and maintenance optimization, life extension with minimal implementation, and the operational advantages of sequence of events, present values and communications capabilities.

Selectivity

Short Circuit

Switchgear and switchboard

Transient Voltage Surge

	Ballast Survival when Exposed to Commonly Found Transient Voltages (IEEE Paper) This white paper was developed to review the effects of exposing energy efficient commercial and industrial lighting ballast to transient surges.
	Ballast Survival when Exposed to Commonly Found Transient Voltages (GE Document) This white paper was developed to review the effects of exposing energy efficient commercial and industrial lighting ballast to transient surges.
	Control Circuits Transient Application of solid-state controls to Electrical systems requires an understanding of surges. Here is an explanation of how surges are caused and how you can cope with them.
	Substation Transients and Solid State Control The general nature and origin of control circuit transients are now fairly well understood. Also much progress has been made in identifying the features of station layout and solid state equipment design to eliminate this problem.
	The Application and Selection of Lightning Arresters This article concentrates on circuits/systems 1000V and greater and provides the reader with some general guidelines for the appropriate selection and application of lightning/surge arresters.
	The Influence of Cable Connections on TVSS Performance This paper is provided to demonstrate the effects associated with cabling Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors (TVSS's). The ramifications of conductor type and length can be significant due to the added impedance they impose on the surge path.

Transformers

UL 508A